CS445/ECE451/CS645 Textbook

This content was thoughtfully created and tailored for CS445/ECE451/CS645, for students at the University of Waterloo.

All notes are mine. I asked an AI tool to handle formatting only.

This Textbook isn't a substitute for attending lectures. Class discussion often expands on topics in response to student questions, and I add commentary, extra examples, and explanations that don't make it into the written version.

Published: August 2026